As of July 2020, the content of this old version has been replaced with a new version.
Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix, Version 4.0 4.5 Electrokinetic Separation
(In Situ Soil Remediation Technology)
  Description Synonyms Applicability Limitations Site Information Points of Contact
Data Needs Performance Cost References Vendor Info. Health & Safety
Home
Table of Contents
Technology>>Soil, Sediment, Bedrock and Sludge

>>3.2 In Situ Physical/Chemical Treatment

      >>4.5 Electrokinetic Separation
Introduction>> The Electrokinetic Remediation (ER) process removes metals and organic contaminants from low permeability soil, mud, sludge, and marine dredging. ER uses electrochemical and electrokinetic processes to desorb, and then remove, metals and polar organics. This in situ soil processing technology is primarily a separation and removal technique for extracting contaminants from soils.

Description:

Figure 4-5: Typical In Situ Electrokinetic Separation System The principle of electrokinetic remediation relies upon application of a low-intensity direct current through the soil between ceramic electrodes that are divided into a cathode array and an anode array. This mobilizes charged species, causing ions and water to move toward the electrodes. Metal ions, ammonium ions, and positively charged organic compounds move toward the cathode. Anions such as chloride, cyanide, fluoride, nitrate, and negatively charged organic compounds move toward the anode. The current creates an acid front at the anode and a base front at the cathode. This generation of acidic condition in situ may help to mobilize sorbed metal contaminants for transport to the collection system at the cathode.

The two primary mechanisms transport contaminants through the soil towards one or the other electrodes: electromigration and electroosmosis. In electromigration, charged particles are transported through the substrate. In contrast, electroosmosis is the movement of a liquid containing ions relative to a stationary charged surface. Of the two, electromigration is the main mechanism for the ER process. The direction and rate of movement of an ionic species will depend on its charge, both in magnitude and polarity, as well as the magnitude of the electroosmosis-induced flow velocity. Non-ionic species, both inorganic and organic, will also be transported along with the electroosmosis induced water flow.

Two approaches are taken during electrokinetic remediation: "Enhanced Removal" and "Treatment without Removal".

"Enhanced Removal" is achieved by electrokinetic transport of contaminants toward the polarized electrodes to concentrate the contaminants for subsequent removal and ex-situ treatment. Removal of contaminants at the electrode may be accomplished by several means among which are: electroplating at the electrode; precipitation or co-precipitation at the electrode; pumping of water near the electrode; or complexing with ion exchange resins. Enhanced removal is widely used on remediation of soils contaminated metals.

"Treatment without Removal" is achieved by electro-osmotic transport of contaminants through treatment zones placed between electrodes. The polarity of the electrodes is reversed periodically, which reverses the direction of the contaminants back and forth through treatment zones. The frequency with which electrode polarity is reversed is determined by the rate of transport of contaminants through the soil. This approach can be used on in-situ remediation of soils contaminated with organic species.

back to top

Synonyms:

Electrokinetics; Electromigration.

back to top

Applicability:

Targeted contaminants for electrokinetics are heavy metals, anions, and polar organics in soil, mud, sledge, and marine dredging. Concentrations that can be treated range from a few parts per million (ppm) to tens of thousands ppm. Electrokinetics is most applicable in low permeability soils. Such soils are typically saturated and partially saturated clays and silt-clay mixtures, and are not readily drained.

back to top

Limitations:

Factors that may limit the applicability and effectiveness of this process include:
  • Effectiveness is sharply reduced for wastes with a moisture content of less than 10 percent. Maximum effectiveness occurs if the moisture content is between 14 and 18 percent.
  • The presence of buried metallic or insulating material can induce variability in the electrical conductivity of the soil, therefore, the natural geologic spatial variability should be delineated. Additionally, deposits that exhibit very high electrical conductivity, such as ore deposits, cause the technique to be inefficient.
  • Inert electrodes, such as carbon, graphite, or platinum, must be used so that no residue will be introduced into the treated soil mass. Metallic electrodes may dissolve as a result of electrolysis and introduce corrosive products into the soil mass.
  • Electrokinetics is most effective in clays because of the negative surface charge of clay particles. However, the surface charge of the clay is altered by both charges in the pH of the pore fluid and the adsorption of contaminants. Extreme pH at the electrodes and reduction-oxidation changes induced by the process electrode reactions many inhibit ER’s effectiveness, although acidic conditions (i.e., low pH) may help to remove metals.
  • Oxidation/reduction reactions can form undesirable products (e.g., chlorine gas).

back to top

Data Needs:

A detailed discussion of data elements is provided in Subsection 2.2.1 (Data Requirements for Soil, Sediment and Sludge).

back to top

Performance Data:

There have been few, if any, commercial applications of electrokinetic remediation in the United States. The electrokinetic technology has been operated for test and demonstration purposes at the pilot scale and at full scale at the following sites: (1) Louisiana State University, (2) Electrokinetics, Inc., (3) Geokinetics International, Inc., and (4) Battelle Memorial Institute. Geokinetics International, Inc.(GII) has successfully demonstrated the in situ electrokinetic remediation process in five field sites in Europe.

In 1996, a comprehensive demonstration study of lead extraction at a U.S.Army firing range in Louisiana was conducted by DoD’s Small Business Innovative Research Program and Electrokinetics, Inc. The EPA taking part in independent assessments of the results, found pilot-scale studies have demonstrated that concentrations of lead decreased to less than 300 mg/kg in 30 weeks of electrokinetic processing when the soils where originally contaminated as high as 4,500 mg/kg of lead.

back to top

Cost:

Costs will vary with the amount of soil to be treated, the conductivity of the soil, the type of contaminant, the spacing of electrodes, and the type of process design employed. Ongoing pilot-scale studies using "real-world" soils indicate that the energy expenditures in extraction of metals from soils may be 500 kWh/m3 or more at electrode spacing of 1.0m to 1.5m. Direct costs estimates of about $15/m3 for a suggested energy expenditure of $0.03 per kilowatt hours, together with the cost of enhancement, could result in direct costs of $50/m3 or more. A recent study estimated full scale costs at $117 per cubic meter.  If no other efficient in situ technology is available to remediate fine-grained and heterogeneous subsurface deposits contaminated with metals, this technique would remain potentially competitive.

back to top

References:

Treatment Technologies for Site Cleanup: Annual Status Report (ASR), Tenth Edition, EPA 542-R-01-004

Innovative Remediation Technologies:  Field Scale Demonstration Project in North America, 2nd Edition

Abstracts of Remediation Case Studies, Volume 4,  June, 2000, EPA 542-R-00-006

Guide to Documenting and Managing Cost and Performance Information for Remediation Projects - Revised Version, October, 1998, EPA 542-B-98-007

EPA, 1996. Recent Development for In Situ Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soil, EPA Office of Solid Waste & Emergency Response. Technology Innovative Office. Washington, DC.

USAEC, 1997. "In-situ Electrokinetic Remediation for Metal Contaminated Soils" in Innovative Technology Demonstration, Evaluation and Transfer Activities, FY 96 Annual Report, Report No. SFIM-AEC-ET-CR-97013, pp. 87-88.

U.S. DOE, 1995. "Electrokintic Remediation of Heavy Metals and Radionuclides," in Technology Catalogue, Second Edition, Office of Environmental Management Office of Technology Development, DOE/EM-0235, pp. 201-203.

back to top

Site Information:

back to top

Points of Contact:

General FRTR Agency Contacts

Technology Specific Web Sites:

Government Web Sites

Non Government Web Sites

back to top

Vendor Information:

A list of vendors offering In Situ Physical/Chemical Soil Treatment  is available from EPA REACH IT which combines information from three established EPA databases, the Vendor Information System for Innovative Treatment Technologies (VISITT), the Vendor Field Analytical and Characterization Technologies System (Vendor FACTS), and the Innovative Treatment Technologies (ITT), to give users access to comprehensive information about treatment and characterization technologies and their applications.

Government Disclaimer

back to top

Health and Safety:

To be added

back to top

Introduction Contaminants Treatments/Profiles References Appendices Navigation